The former ruler has passed away. The event was first announced in the newspapers. The Bosphorus smiled under the sun’s glow. Sultan Abdulhamid II, who had occupied the Ottoman throne for thirty-four years, would be buried a few hours later under the soil of beautiful Istanbul. Sultan Abdulhamid’s body would be brought from Beylerbeyi Palace to Topkapi Palace. There, he would be ritually washed and then buried at nine o’clock next to Sultan Mahmud in Chemberlitas. A single guard wearing a helmet and holding a rifle stood at the Middle Gate. The guards in front of the Gaye of Felicity politely received guests. The Council Hall, which was abandoned and ruined and filled with memories of glorious eras, seemed to smile bitterly at the events of centuries past. Sunbeams streamed over the cypress trees and fell on the grass. One or two custodians with rakes in their hands were gathering the yellowed leaves from the green grass under the morning sun.
I passed in front of the Library of Sultan Ahmed VI. A custodian dressed in black ran quickly from the side of the Tulip Garden; the funeral procession was approaching. I went toward Sarayburnu. A small procession was slowly coming up the sandy incline. A large steamboat neared the dock. Smoke rose from its yellow smokestack. The scene was very sad. The Marmara Sea, the coasts, and the hills were basking in the sun. In the distance Hamidiye Mosque’s slender white form, Yildiz Palace’s tree-lined boulevard, and the palace’s continuous roofs among the naked trees appeared silent and bewildered. A white sheet, a dark shawl, and a bier headed the procession in which everyone was dressed in black. Sultan Abdulhamid lay lifeless on the bedding atop the wooden bier. A thick yellow striped sheet hung down from the edges. His body was covered with a precious dark orange and green embroidered shawl. A guard from Beylerbeyi Palace walked in front of the body, and two rows of soldiers were at its side. Officials form the Inner Court and other members of the palace walked slowly beside the bier, which was being carried by hand. Prince Selim Efendi and some pashas followed them, grieving and deeply touched. Silence reigned. One of the custodians carried a fez covered with a white handkerchief. It was the fez of Sultan Abdulhamid II. From a distance, a gardener holding a hoe looked on sadly. Nothing could be heard but the footsteps of the pallbearers on the sand. The sea was calm and flat. An eternal gift from the Byzantines, the high columns in front of the palace gleamed in the sun.
The funeral procession passed the Tulip Garden. The body was brought to the green and gilded door of the Apartments of the Holy Mantle, and the bier was carried through the entryway. The prince and sons-in-law stayed in Mecidiye Kasri, while the others in the procession remained outside. The door closed, and no one but the officials of the Apartments of the Holy Mantle entered.
What a luminous, sublime, and magnificent chamber it was. Here was the most wonderful, elegant, and radiant place of worship constructed by the Ottoman dynasty in the name of the Caliphate. The walls were adorned with blue and green and gilded panels. Sultan Selim I’s successors comforted their souls in this sacred area, prayed for the army’s victory, and wept in front of the Holy Mantle. The bright tiles and precious inscriptions on the walls were striking.
The shade in front of one of the windows had been partially raised. Wide frosted glass obstructed the view of the Golden Horn. A small six-handled cypress casket resting on two green trellies and a small washing bench could be seen in the courtyard where the shades had been raised. Sultan Abdulhamid was laid on the washing bench. Grief-stricken, I stood in front of the gilded bars of the window. As the coffin advanced, the Inner Court officials respectfully folded their hands, waiting to perform their duty. Across the way, a closed door that hid centuries of legends and the blue tiled walls seemed to want to forgo this page of history. Four imams – two wearing green turbans, the other wearing white – piously washed the body with sponges and musk soap. A fresh white winding sheet covered Sultan Abdulhamid’s corpse. The areas above his chest and below his knees were not visible. There was no evidence of long illness on the body. The corpse did not display the appalling yellow color of death. It looked like an inanimate object made of ivory.
On the whole, he was attractive. Become more beautiful as it was washed, the white body was stretched out naturally in the hands of the washers on the bench. Holding silver incense burning, palace officials stood across from the corpse. Everyone was deeply reverent. Trust in God was visible in their faces. The Apartments of the Holy Mantle were witnessing a historic day. The last page of the sultanate would close on that day. Everyone’s gaze was fixed on Sultan Abdulhamid’s closed eyes. As warm water was poured over the body, white steam rose and mixed with the scent of aloe and amber from the incense burner. There was an apprehensive silence. Nothing could be heard but the footsteps of those coming and going to perform services. With their hands folded, eyes on the body, and tears of grief, two of the sultan’s son-in-law stood by his feet.
Nature’s beauty could be felt in all its glory outside the palace. The waters of the Golden Horn shimmered in the unexpected February sun. The boxwood trees were bare and open to the bounty of spring. The washing of the body was still not finished. Sultan Abdulhamid’s closed eyes, gray hair, naked body, and lifelessness awoke a melancholy in the hearts of the onlookers. At times, when his head suddenly slipped and his hands fell to his sides, he resembled an innocent, hopeless person. His neck was bent strangely with his white, disordered beard.
Finally, the washing of the corpse was completed. It was dried with yellow silk-embroidered towels. The coffin was lifted, and the washing bench was brought next to it. A winding sheet was spread inside. Sultan Abdulhamid’s body was respectfully laid in the coffin.
Sultan Abdulhamid had not lost consciousness until the last moment of his life. He requested that a testament prayer be put on his chest and a handkerchief rubbed against the Holy Mantle, as well as a piece of the black Kaba cover, be used cover his face. His request was carried out to the letter. It was truly heartrending sight: Sultan Abdulhamid lying inside the coffin with winding sheets, the testament prayer on his naked chest, the black Ka’ba cover on his face, his white bear, with his eyes forever closed… Sultan Abdulhamid was humbly going to god, leaving his sins behind.
The shroud was tied and the coffin closed. The heavy ticking of a mother-of-pearl clock, which had witnessed centuries, echoed in the grandeur of the Apartments of the Holy Mantle. Arrangement of the coffin began. First a bed sheet and then a silver-embroidered red cover were placed on the coffin. The bottom was wrapped with a navy blue flowered cloth. Ka’ba covers and belts decorated with precious stones were placed on top. Shawls were wrapped around the head and arms of the body. A red fez was put on the green satin wrapped around the head. While the body was being washed, the plain coffin and wooden washing bench had contrasted sharply with the brilliant colors and gilding in the Apartments of the Holy Mantle. Now Sultan Abdulhamid’s coffin adorned with silk, shawls and silver thread and precious stones fit with the Apartments magnificence and splendor.
Everyone departed. Only the coffin, with its head turned towards the harem chamber, could be seen among the decorated columns, colored walls, and polished panels. To the left, in the Apartments’ window the gold and silver-embroidered green curtains, heavy silver tassels, gold grating, priceless wall panels, and the Qur’an were visible as well. Footsteps sounded in front of the Audience Hall. One of the distinguished sons-in-law advanced rapidly and stopped mournfully in the corner in the wall. With his eyes on the coffin, he opened his hands, made a short prayer, and let out a sincere sob. It echoed among the ornamented domes.
It was nine o’clock. Ambassadors and officers dressed in silver-trimmed uniforms and fur headgear and and hats waited in front of the door of the Apartments. Foreigners stared in awe at this magnificent place. Scholars, dressed in green and purple robes with broad sleeves and silver embroidery, were being greeted respectfully. The crowd grew. The Crown Prince and other princes were in full uniform. Medals, silver decorations, and uniforms glittered in the February sun.
Suddenly, the door to the Apartments of the Holy Mantle opened. All eyes turned to the door. IT was crowded on both sides. Hearts throbbing, everyone sought a view of the coffin. Carried by hand and adorned with a diamond belt, silver embroidered Ka’ba covers, red satin, and a red fez, it finally appeared, stately and majestic. Prominent officials and officers stood near the coffin, which was put on a high place in front of the door. The head preacher of the Hamidiye Mosque, dressed in a green, silver embroidered robe with an imperial monogram on his chest, stepped forward and stood on the stone. He looked around and asked:
“How did you know the deceased to be?”
A sad cry echoed among the cypress trees:
“We knew him to be good”.
A short recitation of Surat al-Fatiha ended the ceremony. The coffin was lifted and carried slowly past the Library of Sultan Ahmed VI and the Audience hall to the front of the Door of Felicity. According to custom, the funeral prayer was performed here, and the procession was then organized. Princes, notables, commanders, and palace officials all gathered. Occasionally the procession officials in silver-embroidered dress with white papers in their hands were heard to call out to the procession. Finally it was ready. The soldiers put their guns on their shoulders, and marched in perfect silence. Dedes and Shazeli dervishes walked in front of the coffin. Officers of the imperial Inner Court and other palace officials served as pallbearers.
The cortege moved slowly among the cypress trees from the Gate of Felicity to the Middle Gate. Majestically passing through the Middle Gate, this moving profession of God’s unity made a sweet echo that exuded an aura of pious reverence and consolation to the spirit. It resounded between the Middle Gate’s stone walls and the gate. This echo reflected Sultan Selim III’s sensitive, noble spirit. Was it possible not to remember his pure and blessed spirit with every sound from the imperial Inner Court? The Inner Court officials were reciting prayers. The sound, which echoed from the ruined walls of the Council Hall, was the touching cry of the Ottoman spirit. Everyone walked respectfully behind the coffin. This gate had seen the passage of many sultans’ funerals and the shedding of many tears. In front, the intermittent, sad chants of the dervish elders could be heard. With a moving Arabic melody rising like a slow refrain, the sheikhs of the Shazeli dervish hall chanted the proclamation of God’s unity, the affirmation of His greatness, and eulogies to Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him. The area between the Middle Gate and thee Imperial Gate was filled with the automobiles of German officers and various cars. Two elegant women stood up in their coach, watching the procession behind thin veils. A little farther way in front of the Hagia Irine Church of Byzantine-period and the military museum, the members of the military band with huge quilted turbans, baggy red trousers, silver vests, and yellow and red flags had stopped. Living history saluted the coffin with derference and respect.
The funeral procession left the Imperial Gate. The streets were empty. Two rows of soldiers lined the way from Ayasofya Mosque to Sultan Mahmud’s Tomb. The trees, houses, windows, and roofs were filled with women and children. The coffin advanced amidst poignant prayers and proclamations of God’s greatness and unity. Those watching the funeral procession were moved. One woman leaned her head on a wall and sobbed. Some looked on indifferently, but sensitive hearts wept at the sad spectacle, the mournful cries, and religious magnificence. The final ceremony of the Ottoman sultan who had held the Caliphate for thirty-four years was being performed with reverence.
The coffin entered the tomb, the procession chanting the name of God. Sultan Abdulhamid was placed in the grave with deference and respect. A thirty-four-year page of Ottoman history was concluded in sorrow
(Vakit by Ahmet Refik, February 18, 1918)
ref: Aydin, Hilmi (2005). The Sacred Trusts (pg 43). New Jersey: The Light Publishing
Ahmet Refik was born in 1880 in Istanbul. Graduating from Military School, he was enrolled in the army.
Refik taught Geography and French in military schools, and later wrote columns for various papers. After World War I he taught at university as well. Ahmet Refik died in 1937 in Istanbul
Timas Publishing has translated Ahmet Refik’s works into Modern Turkish, as they are deeply resonant studies of Ottoman culture, from its victories to its military officials, from its scholars to its artists
When trying to understand the connection between Mureed and Sheykh, the story of Uways al Karani (R) is a key which will open up understanding, especially in these days where students are often seperated by their teacher in many physical ways.
In the example of Uwaysal Karani (R) we find also the power of spiritually connecting to the teacher, which is possible even over vast distances.
It is interesting to note here that the key of Uwaysal Karani’s (R) example is closeness and attachment to the Prophet (S), not attempts at independence and de-emphasis.
It is with emphasis on the teacher and love for the teacher he never met which gave Uwaysal Karani (R) his particularly high status.
One chapter of Sahih Muslim is dedicated to the hadith of Uwaysal Karani (R)
So my advice to you is stick to your own guide like Uwaysal Karani (R), who loved his guide deeply from afar.
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‘Umar bin Khattab reported: I heard Allah’s Messenger (S.A.W.) as saying: Worthy amongst the successors would be a person who would be called Uways. He would have his mother (living with him) and he would have (a small) sign of leprosy. Ask him to beg pardon for you (from Allah). [Saheeh Muslim, Book 31, Number 6171]
His name was Uways, he was known as Uways al-Qarani because he lived in a village called “Qaran” in Yemen. Uways bin ‘Amir al Muradi al-Qarani (Radia-Allahu’anhu) was a very pious and noble person. Although his life was insignificant from a worldly point of view, he is renowned and honored amongst all Muslims, Sufis in particular, for his piety, practice of zuhd (asceticism) , as well as a deep love and affection for the Beloved Messenger of Allah (Salla’llahu’ alayhi was salaam). It is said that he spent all his hours in solitude, fasting, night vigil and salat (prayers). Uways al-Qarani was presented the blessed cloak of Rasulullah (S.A.W.) on the Holy Prophet’s instruction. It is preserved in Istanbul, Turkey. He had embraced Islam while the Beloved Prophet was still alive. He naturally had a very strong desire to see the Prophet but since his mother was very old and she needed his constant care and attention, he could not visit the Beloved of Allah. As a reward of his service to his mother, he was treated as a Sahabi (Companion of Prophet) by the Prophet even though he could not see him personally. His name entered the list of Sahaba only because of his strong intention to see the Allah’s Beloved Messenger. When Uways al-Qarani received a message about the Beloved Prophet, that he had lost a tooth in the battle of “Uhud”, Uways pulled one of his own teeth out (because of his love towards the Beloved Prophet).
Once the Companions asked the Beloved Prophet: “Has Uways Qarani ever visited you? The Beloved Prophet replied: “No, He never watched me physically, but spiritually he met me.”
He had asked his mother’s permission to visit Allah’s Most Beloved Messenger Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam, and she said: “You have my permission to go, see him once, and come straight back. If the Messenger Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam is at home, you may meet with him; if not, come straight back here.” Uways made a journey of three months on foot, from the Yemen to Madinah the Illuminated. When he reached Rasulullah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam’s house, he knocked on the door and Hadrat Aisha Radi allahu Anha, wife of the Chosen Prophet and Mother of the Believers opened the door. She told him that Rasulullah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam was in the Masjid.
Uways Radi allahu Anhu remembered his promise to his mother and replied: “Please convey my salaams to my Beloved Rasulullah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam. Kindly inform him that Uways came from the Yemen, did not find him at home, and is returning to the Yemen, since he does not have permission from his mother to meet him in the mosque.”
When the Rasul Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam came home from the mosque, he found the radiance of Uways in his house. Hadrat Aisha Radi allahu Anha told him what had happened, and conveyed Uways’s salutations. His blessed eyes looked towards Yemen and the Beloved Prophet Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam said: “The fragrance of our friend is reaching us.” The noble Companions asked: “If Uways is your friend, why did he not stay to see you?” Rasulullah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam replied: “He complied with a promise given to his mother and he is serving her.”
The Beloved Prophet Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam said “Uways will come back to Madinah the Illuminated, to meet me, but we will not meet physically, for I shall then be united with my Lord ”
Rasulullah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam said that when Uways Radi allahu Anhu came back to Madinah he was to be given his cloak, and asked to pray for the Community of Muhammad Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam. He also mentioned that a light was visible on one of Uways’s hands.
During Hadrat Umar Radi allahu Anhu’s Caliphate, a number of Yemeni’s visited Madinah the Illuminated and Hadrat Ali and Hadrat Umar Radi allahu Anhu ajmain approached them and enquired about the Saint, Uways Radi allahu Anhu, from the village of Qaran. The Yemenis said they knew of no such saint, but they did point out that a camelherd from that village, who seldom mixed with other people, preferring to spend his time in worship, alone among the camels. Hadrat Ali and Hadrat Umar Radi allahu Anhu ajmain then approached Hadrat Uways Radi allahu Anhu, greeted him, conveyed the greetings of the Messenger Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam, and presented him with his blessed cloak. But he was reluctant to accept. “Surely there is some mistake!” he exclaimed, in his desire to hide himself. Seeing the light upon his hand, however, they cried: “You are the saint described to us by Allah’s MessengerSalla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam, for he told us about the light on your hand.” They also reported to him the wish of the blessed MessengerSalla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam that he should pray for the Community of Muhammad.
Hadrat Uways Radi allahu Anhu rubbed the blessed cloak over his face and eyes and kissed it. Then he asked to be left alone. When he was alone he held the cloak and began to pray: “0 Allah this cloak is the cloak of Your beloved Messenger. He has presented it to me, but I refuse to wear it unless You pardon the Community of Muhammad Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam.” He then repeated his prayer in exactly the same words. As he was about to repeat his prayer a third time, Hadrat Ali and Hadrat Umar Radi allahu Anhu ajmain came beside him. He cried: “Oh, you came too soon! Upon my first supplication, Allah granted me forgiveness for one third of the Community; on my second, He forgave two-thirds of the Community. In my third request I was pleading for pardon for the entire Community of Muhammad – then you came along!”
As with people in every age, the Yemenis were unaware of the presence in their midst of such a saint, whose prayers were accepted. They imagined him to be an ordinary camelherd. The Friends of Allah, do not seek fame, and as such hide themselves away from other people.
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Whosoever comes to you while your affairs has been united under one man, intending to break your strength or dissolve your unity, kill him. – Sahih Muslim
A carpet is large enough to accommodate two sufis, but the world is not large enough for two Kings. – Yavuz Selim (Selim I)
Sultan Saladin was a famous Muslim Sultan. Countless versions of his life story have been told in historical texts, novels, cartoons and even on the big screen. He was known for his justice and sincerity.
Yet, it was only 60 years after his death that civil war entered creating a split empire, various brothers and relatives maintaining power over individual states. This eventually allowed the non-Muslim Mongols to tear through and assassinate the Sultans and Caliphs, end the dynasty and ransack Muslim land and libraries.
In Andalus (Moorish Spain), after the overthrow of Hisham III, the land holdings devolved into weak city states ruled by various Emirs which eventually led to the inability to respond to Ferdinand and Isabella’s Inquisition and subsequent usurpation of Granada.
Is participating in a power struggle enough to consider a person an immoral ruler? Is relinquishing power the only moral option? The Islamic understanding of a great leader has been unique in that it is generally understood that the best leaders are those who have power thrust upon them, rather than demanded or taken by force (or won by seeking office). Most modern Muslims apply this principle to an extreme, and end up having a distaste for looking at the struggles between leaders of the past.
However, when examining upright rulers within Islamic history it becomes clear that the motivations of consolidation of power seemed to be completely separate from the desire of power itself. Sultan Saladin, widely considered a Wali (Friend of Allah) by Sunni tradition and defender of the Holy Cities from Crusaders, fought numerous Muslim leaders of sub-states in the process of consolidation. Yet somehow, the deaths of Muslims in the struggles that occurred in the process of securing power are not considered to be a black mark on his reputation.
The truth of the matter is that it has always been understood that successorship and power was in the hands of those whom Allah has given power and success to. If leaders were moved by spiritual wisdom and political forces to gather power to ensure better protection of their Muslim territories, or if there indeed were rebellious factions to the obvious leader of the people, then the unfortunate reality is that battles were necessary.
Examples of the conflicts which resulted from the consolidation of power that arose between Muslims are numerous within Islamic history.
Sultan Nur ad-Din desired to consolidate Muslim power and unify the Muslim states. By the fortune of the recent deaths of various Sultans, he was able to gain control over a large territory between the Euphrates and the Nile. Only Damascus remained, where Sultan Mujir ad-Din had agreed to pay tribute to the Crusaders for their protection. Sultan Nur ad-Din was eventually able to overthrow Sultan Mujir ad-Din and establish a solid front against the Crusaders. Sultan Nur ad-Din also brought Egypt under his control as well, taking it from the Shia Fatimid dynasty.
However, it wasn’t until Sunni Muslims began facing external forces that the critical nature of minimizing such instability and disturbances became apparant. It was the forces of the Crusaders, the Mongols and Persians that made clear the need for a strong unified leadership.
When Raynald of Chatillon directly threatened to attack Makkah during the course of the Crusades, Sultan Saladin ended up using the combined forces of the Muslims to secure and recapture Jeruselem. In the course of these battles he ended up using Egyptian land as a safehaven and used Syria to wait and consolidate his power. All of this would not have been possible with separate sovereign empires, independently bargaining for their safety, determining their own strategies, and certainly would have left Muslims at the mercy of petty squabbles.
It is clear that such consolidation of power was a necessary evil in order to unify Muslims under the strongest leadership possible. Certainly it is only with this system in place that made it possible for Muslims (with the Ottomans) to hold the longest-reigning dynasty in world history.
Yet, this dynasty is questioned quite often on the moral compass of its leadership, especially by Muslims. Muslims who, by mere fortune of having eaten the fruits of the sacrifices of these people, find it quite easy to turn back and complain about this or that from the hundreds of years they relied on the Ottomans to protect them. One example, beyond the necessity to battle Muslim states, was the practice of ‘fratricide’ supposedly put in place by the Ottomans.
Modern day Muslims tend to view the Caliphs and Sultans as invincible tyrants, free to have their whim obeyed at each turn. The reality was the Sultans lived in complex political times, their relatives were representing other powerful political groups with their own interests, Viziers from previous administrations and commanders and statesmen representing noble families wielded great influence. The motivations for power were not simply personal ambition but a representation of a vast families, political parties, provinces.
In Ottoman times, the simple presence of a lateral royal personality caused great havoc. Such individuals would constantly be approached to rally some area under their banner and seek to gain greater control or become puppets of another.
Upon the succession of Sultan Murad II, the Byzantine Empire released Mustafa Celebi and declared him the rightful heir to the Ottoman Sultanate. Of course, this was with prior agreement that a number of provinces would be turned over to the Byzantines should he succeed in claiming the throne. Sultan Murad II was able to properly defeat this rebellion and in Gallipoli executed Mustafa Celebi. This same situation occurred again in Sultan Murad’s reign when the Byzantines used his younger brother Mustafa to distract Sultan Murad from his siege on Constantinople by supporting an uprising in Anatolia.
With Sultan Beyazid, his brother Cem gave Pope Innocent VIII a figurehead and puppet Muslim king with which to seek resources to launch another crusade. Fortunately for Muslims, the European monarchies rejected the proposal from the Pope at the time. Cem was a powerful figure, capable of rallying people and creating disunity in the Empire. Prior to his capture and use by the Pope, he was able to rally an army of over four thousand and win Anatolia from his brother, until Sultan Bayezid was forced to act against him. Once captured, the European powers and the Pope used Cem often to halt Ottoman advances at the Balkans, threatening his mistreatment or even release.
The overarching threat of enemy use of powerful individuals with the ability to draw large armies did not end there. When the succession was still in play Korkud attempted to buy the jannisaries support by distributing gold which they accepted. However when Selim I arrived in Istanbul in April 1512, they backed his succession and deposition of his father (ref: Uluchay, ‘Yavuz Sultan Selim’ VII 10.125-6, VIII/ 11-12.185-6). Upon succession, Sultan Selim I found the European powers eyeing his brother Korkud to be used in a similar manner to Cem and the Safavid Persians were providing heavy support to his brother Ahmed.
Due to these and numerous other events, Sultan Selim I was forceful in his elimination of lateral competition to the throne, in the interest of unity against enemies of the orthodox Sunni Ottomans. Actual execution became a practice for a period of less than 100 years leading to utter confinement. Either of these approaches were not something taken lightly by the Sultans nor their family. This sacrifice was a very real necessity that became something demanded of the Sultans by the statesmen of the Ottoman Empire, and the Muslim people, in the interest of presenting a unified front and eliminating needless bloodshed.
When imagining the power struggles and hearing of the supposed penultimate power of the Caliphate, one would think: who would be so eager to kill their brother except a power hungry facist? But it turns out this was not the case at all.
Proof that these executions were not the deepest wish of the Sultan is found clearly within the Ottoman archives. Sultan Murat’s Jewish physician, Domenico Hierosolimitano, describes the sacrifice made for stability in describing the ascension of Sultan Murat to the throne (and its consequences for his family):
But Sultan Murat, who was so compassionate as to be unable to see blood shed, waited eighteen hours, in which he refused to sit on the Imperial throne or to make public his arrival in the City [arrival in Istanbul was trigger for the process of ascension], seeking and discussing a way to free his nine brothers of blood who were in the Seraglio… In order that he should not break the law of the Ottoman state … weeping, he sent the mutes to strangle them, giving nine handkerchiefs with his own hands to the chief of the mutes. – ref: Austin, Domenico’s Istanbul
Each of the Sultans lateral competitors to the throne were carrying influences from their families and political allies. Each of the members of the House of Osman had their political fate tied to them at birth. At a certain point, it was commonly known to all involved what would occur when a Sultan succeeded to the throne. Every individuals fate, political allies, and enemies in the family being known to them years in advance. When the men of this family weren’t facing execution, they were facing long-term confinement in the Palace (so as not to rally any potential factions under their flag).
When the assembly of statesmen, legal authorities and commandors assembled to discuss who should ascend the throne after Sultan Mehmed IV (who had accepted abdicating the throne), they decided in favour of his brother Suleyman. This case, like others, indicates the Sultanship was (unlike European kingdoms) transferred through the process of consultation and deliberation of those in authority. Quite similar to what occurred in the time of the Sahabi and the Khulafa Rashidun, not simple ‘nepotism’.
Further, the entire process of the ascension was related by Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Agha, who was serving as a page in the privy chamber, he (as he notes) ‘witnessed the truth of it all’. This narration demonstrates the manner in which the family of Osman was raised, what they were asked to sacrifice, the manner in which they were ready to die, and the manner in which they accepted Sultanship. The myth of plump princes handed free reign over the world through nepotistic practices disappears quickly. The lessons in here are innumerable, so I will end on this narration of the successorship of Sultan Suleyman Khan (Suleiman II).
The Chief Black Eunuch went to that part of the Palace known as the Boxwood apartment, where Prince Suleyman Khan was confined, and invited him to leave his quarters whereupon, supposed he was to be done away with, the Prince refused to come out. ‘Your majesty, my Sultan, fear not! By God, I swear I intend you no harm. All the imperial ministers and doctors of theology and your military servants have chosen you as the next sultan and are awaiting the honour of your presence. We are at your command.’
His heart still in a state of unease, the Prince replied, weeping, ‘If my removal [i.e. execution] has been ordered , tell me, so that I may perform my prayers in the prescribed form prior to the order being carried out. I have been confined for forty years – ever since I was a child. Rather than dying [a thousand deaths] each [and every] day, it is preferable to die [once] at the earliest instant….’
Again placing a kiss on the Prince’s foot, the imperial officer responded, ‘God forbid, do not say such things, I beg you! It is not a death but rather a throne which has been set up for you’.[When the Chief Black Eunuch stated that all the Prince's servants would attend him] the Prince’s companion by his side, his younger brother Ahmed, offered reassurance, saying, ‘By your leave, do not be afraid, the Agha always tells the truth’ Upon this, the Prince emerged from the apartment Since he was dressed in a robe of red satin and his feet encased in a pair of short, heavy, riding boots- having had nothing to wear for years except clothes of the very meanest and poorest sort – the Agha had one of his own robes brought, a dark bluish-brown broadcloth lined with sable, which he draped over Prince Suleyman’s satin robe, and then, giving his arm to the Prince, conducted him with reverance and deference to the Pavilion of Felicity of the Privy Chamber and seated him on a throne by the pool. The Swordbearer and the pages of the Privy Chamber came forward and, as he advanced in their company toward the imperial Audience Hall, the Prince inquired, ‘Are you going to stop by the Lion House (a former church where animals were kept), all enveloped in darkness, and execute me there?’
‘Oh my Lord’, the Swordbearer answered, ‘how can you suggest such a thing? God forbid, may it be known that your removal from the Boxwood Apartment was in order that you should ascend the throne. See your servant, the Chief White Eunich, along with the imperial messenger, is coming from the Privy Apartments to meet you’ The Chief White Eunuch extended his salutations to the Prince and putting his arm through the Prince’s left arm escorted him to the imperial audience hall and seated him on the throne. In accordance with ancient custom, the sacred turban of the Prophet Joseph, [kept safe] in the Imperial Treasury, was brought forth and placed on the exalted head of the Prince and adorned with three bejewelled plumes, trailing downwards. The point to which the sun ahd risen was but one-and-a-half spears-length high: it was three o’clock.
Prince Suleyman ascended the imperial throne … and the first in line to swear allegiance was the Registrar of the Descendants of the Prophet Muhummad (S), followed by the Grand Vizir’s Proxy and the Chancellor and the chief justices of the provinces of Rumeli and Anadolu and subsequently, the SheykhulIslam with various doctors of theology, and the senior officers of the militia and the sultan’s regiments and the rebels, as well as the head of the Palace Doorkeepers and the chief officer of the Bearers of the Imperial Flask – all swore their allegiance to the Sultan. In turn, the Sultan extended his salutations to the assembled body in the imperial Audience Hall and then honoured the Pavilion of the Privy Chamber by his presence, where he was seated on a throne at the pool. Now, the servants of the treasury and the commissariat and the campaign also came to swear their allegiance.
The Chief Black Eunuch, Ali Agha, came bearing an imperial rescript ordering the confinement of the new Sultan’s brother Ahmed Khan, the deposed Sultan [Mehmed IV], and the two princes … Mustafa Khan and Ahmed Khan; the three were raised up and detained in the Boxwood Apartment. A secret concealed from the inmates in the court and residents of the city, the imperial writ was presented to Sultan Mehmed Khan, who said, ‘ I bow my head to God’s wish. Once imprisoned are we then to be executed? ‘ The Agha replied, ‘ God forbid, your Majesty ! May that day never come. The order only refers only to your being confined.’ That same say, the palace heralds delivered the propitious news to the Queen-mother and were granted an untold number of gifts, and the public crier proclaimed to the city the glad tidings of the imperial accession; and the Firday sermon was orated in the name of the newly enthroned sultan and the coinage now bore his name.
ref [Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Aga, Silhadar Ta rihi 2.296-8]
The discussion about the personality of Sultan Selim II goes back centuries, he was most likely the center of discussion even in the period of time in which he lived. This would be understandable, as his father, Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, would be difficult to surpass in greatness. It was with Sultan Selim that the office of the Sultan became immensely more private and reserved, hence the door to open speculation about his character was also widely opened.
Due to this, we also find with Sultan Selim an obvious departure of what is accepted as ‘history’ by Western students from reality. Once a few facts are examined and logical contradictions are exposed, the propagated history of Sultan Selim II becomes very clearly an invented tale. The extent of this false history is somewhat unbelievable to those who are accustomed to what has been bought as the idea of Western ‘impartiality’ when it comes to news and history. Similarly there is often a negative consideration to those who speak out against what is considered as established fact, left to be called ‘conspiracy theorists’.
Oddly enough for a Muslim community, which some may say loves conspiracies, there has been little or no call to rally around when it comes to a false Ottoman history.
As to why there hasn’t been much opposition, it is not difficult to come to some simple conclusions. The founders of the present secular state of Turkey had little motivation to promote an accurate view of history and sought to separate themselves from the Ottomans as much as possible. With no state backing and really no people identifying themselves with the Sultans in spirit, there has been really no organized state effort to provide even an emotional rebuttal, much less a factual one which requires research as in this post. At the same time the Muslim population which turned away from Islam and abandoned the Caliphate has now revitalized a new anti-historical Islam which avoids Ottoman contributions, and in some cases, even perpetuates these myths.
Further, most people have been cut off from the actual facts since the massive cultural shift from the Caliphate to present day. Not only was the entire Ottoman language obliterated and the script of a new language forced on the population, but even ancient religious traditions such as the Azan (Call to Prayer) were being outlawed in anything other than ‘Turkish’ [1]. Furthermore, for decades, the Ottoman archives were completely sealed shut, leaving only biased 18th century Western documents as sources of Ottoman history.
Sultan Selim II receiving Safavid Ambassador
The Ottomans were notorious record keepers, from the earliest days of the Empire. The Ottoman archives are estimated to hold more than 150 million handwritten documents. Only about a quarter of them are yet classified and computerized. It is estimated that only about 32 million records are currently accessible for researchers [2]. The Turkish state is extremely selective on who gets access and it is monitored carefully, being banned without notice is quite common. The Ottoman archives store treaties, border disputes, inheritance, titles and privileges, trusts, gifts, charitable and religious foundations (vakif), court documents, land deeds, applicable laws, historical demographics, tax, crops, military records, and official correspondence.
Only recently have researchers been given the ability to apply to access even the limited catalogue of the Ottoman Archives. With that in mind, this article will focus largely on accepted Western sources, and primarily Osman’s Dream by Caroline Finkel, one of the few books to use information from the Ottoman Archives in order to give a better picture of Ottoman history. The intention is to contrast this information with what is popularly retold as the biography of Sultan Selim II, largely summarized on Wikipedia as sourced from the Encyclopedia Britannica Eleventh Edition (public domain) and Ottoman Centuries by Patrick Balfour Kinross.
Ottoman Centuries is a particularly dastardly work when it comes to accuracy, being one of the most popular on the subject, yet containing only two pages of a bibliography for covering 700 years of history at 640 pages. Osman’s Dream, a much more scholarly work, has 30 pages of bibliographic references and 37 pages of cited notes for a total of 660 pages.
Kinross’s work, the encyclopedia entries, and nearly all Western books on Sultan Selim II’s personality start by painting a picture of an incompetent drunkard :
After gaining the throne after palace intrigue and fraternal dispute, Selim II became the first Sultan devoid of active military interest and willing to abandon power to his ministers, provided he was left free to pursue his orgies and debauches. Therefore, he became known as Selim the Drunkard or Selim the Sot. His Grand Vizier, Mehmed Sokollu, a Serbian forced-convert from what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina, controlled much of state affairs…[wikipedia]
As is commonly known, alcohol is forbidden in Islam, the professed faith of all Sultans (and by which authority they ruled). The attempt to portray certain Sultans as drunks seems to be rooted in a desire to demonstrate weakness of character and sincerity when it came to the faith of Islam. This accusation is repeated through most Western books regarding the Ottoman empire dated from the 18th century onwards (the Sultan ruled in the 16th century) however each case remains uncited as to its source. The most academically honest student might cite Kinross’s work, but that leads the student to a dead end since it is already noted how well referenced that work actually is.
How can we reconcile conflicting idea that the Sultan sought to escape a basic Islamic ruling yet for some reason promoted Islam itself, especially as strongly as Sultan Selim II did? It is difficult to accept this characterization in light of the numerous investments in Islam that Sultan Selim II made, sacrificing great personal wealth in order to leave a legacy of Islam which has stood to this day. Further, the appointments that Sultan Selim II made were of highly religious people, many writing deep loving poetry for God and His Prophet (S). One of the most notable poets of that time, “Fuzuli” was appointed Secretary of State, a sample of his poetry demonstrating a deeply religious character is available within Ottoman Poems by E J W Gibb. Some of that poetry has been available on yursil.com.
Actual imperial orders from the Sultan seem hardly able to fit within the uncited fictional character seeking to escape Islam’s commandments to pursue Western frivolities. On the contrary, imperial orders show firm resolve to ease the burden of those engaging in the strenuous Hajj pilgrimage, and special consideration for Muslims living under the subjugation of intolerant colonialists.
An excerpt of an imperial order from the Sultan below:
..because the accursed Portugese are everywhere owing to their hostilities against India, and the routes by which Muslims come to the Holy Places are obstructed and moreover, it is not considered lawful for the people of Islam to live under the power of miserable infidels … you are to gather together all the expert architects and engineers of that place and investigate the land between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas and report where it is possible to make a canal in that desert place and how long it would be and how many boats could pass side by side. – ref: Ottoman Archives: Muhimme Defteri Vol 7 No 721
Indeed, it was with Sultan Selim II that the first plans of the Suez Canal began, although it was not accomplished in his lifetime.
The second part of the introduction of Sultan Selim II’s character, by Western sources, is the common story that Sultan Selim II was actually controlled by his Grand Vizir. This theory has left out important information contained within Ottoman Archives where Sultan Selim II was often deciding between various Vezirs and creating his own hierarchies of authority:
In 1568 a strong expedition was sent to pacify the province under the command of Sultan Selim’s former tutor and confidant Lala Mustafa Pasha, a choice which showed that Selim was not entirely the pawn of his grand vezir, for Sokullu Mehmed resented Lala Mustafa’s place in the Sultan’s affections. To put down the uprising in Yemen Lala Mustafa needed men and supplies from Egypt but the provincial governor, another rival Koca Sinan Pasha, refused his requests and made it impossible for him to pursue the campaign. In a spate of petitions to the Sultan the two defended their respective positions. Koca Sinan proved the stronger and Lala Mustafa was dismissed from command of the Yemen campaign. To mark his continuing favour, however, Selim created for him the position of sixth vezir of the governing council of the empire. -Osman’s Dream by Caroline Finkel
Introducing another odd contradiction, after insinuating that Sultan Selim had really no care or control of the empire, Kinross’s account in Ottoman Centuries takes almost laughably ridiculous guesses as to motivations for various military campaigns. This is cited on Sultan Selim II’s Wikipedia entry:
Lord Patrick Kinross’ account of Selim’s reign is how he starts a chapter of his book called “The Seeds of Decline”. He sees the massive outlay for the fleet-rebuilding following the Battle of Lepanto as the start of the Empire’s slow decay. Kinross also says that Selim’s reputation for drunkenness was solidified in his decision to invade Cyprus rather than supporting the Morisco Revolt in Grenada as well as in the manner of his death; Selim died after a period of fever brought on when he drunkenly slipped over on the wet floor of an unfinished bath-house.
Other orientalist works from the 1800′s seem to hold the Sultan Selim II was so in love with wine that he wanted control of Cyprus to have fresh wine. On the other hand, Caroline Finkel notes:
Friction between the Ottomans and Venice was never completely absent but outright war was usually avoided. According to contemporary Ottoman historians, it was Venetian protection for the corsairs who plagued Ottoman vessels sailing the route to Egypt which drove Selim to mount a campaign to conquer Cyprus.
It is not difficult to see which theory seems more intelligently considered. Furthermore, a few different reports exist for Sultan Selim II’s death, some indeed say he died from complications from a fall in a bath, without mentioning drunkenness. Other versions state that he fell on way to perform a Khutbe at the new Mosque bearing his name. Oddly enough, for how widely present the idea of a drunk Sultan is within Selim II’s internet presence, Caroline Finkel’s work does not mention drinking or debaucheries within her 20+ page write up on the Sultan.
Selimye Mosque
Far from running from Islam, Sultan Selim II’s work for Islam is truly beyond impressive, the Selimye mosque he built is an architectural achievement which still causes emotional reactions. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (d. 1762), wife of the English ambassador in Istanbul is quoted as saying the mosque which Sultan Selim II build was “The noblest building I ever saw.”
The seventeenth century traveller Evliya Celebi notes Sultan Selim’s justification for choosing Eridrne as a location for the mosque, relating that the Prophet Muhummad (S) came to to the Sultan in a dream and directed him to build it there.
As is also noted within Osman’s Dream, Sultan Selim’s work for Islam was carried far beyond Istanbul:
Sultan Selim also continued his parents’ involvement with Mecca, his work gave the great mosque the distinctively Ottoman appearance it retains today. The enclosure lacked the space for a monumental mosque like those in Istanbul, so the galleries surrounding the courtyard were remodeled in the Ottoman style and given domes in places of their original flat roof. These works were continued during Murad II’s reign, serving to impress pilgrims from the all over the world with the power and munificence of the new protectors of the Muslim Holy Places
That’s correct, all the structural beauty of Makkah itself in the grand Ottoman style came from the direction and resources of Sultan Selim II. All Hajji’s are witnesses to this. All this, and we have barely scratched the surface. Sultan Selim II was a Sultan for only eight years. This was a Sultan who ruled by the foundations of Islam such that they literally stand to this day, and that itself is testimony to the righteousness of Sultan Selim II. With all of the information of his personal pursuits such as his love of archery, his political activities, his architectural projects and plans, and considering the short time of his rule, it is impossible to buy into the Kinrossian picture of a disinterested drunk perpetuated by his book (Hasha Astaghfirullah).
Kinross’s work is cited in at least 86 other books on Ottoman History [3], and is clearly and fundamentally flawed in its depiction of this Sultan. The flaws, if not in structure then in reasoning, are so apparent that it casts huge doubts on what is commonly known about the Ottoman Empire in general. Britannica and other well considered sources of information make the same fundamental mistakes as Kinross.
Osman’s Dream by Caroline Finkel is a tremendous improvement to what has existed prior to it, however it suffers from a critical flaw: lack of understanding of the Ottoman Muslim culture. A reevaluation of Ottoman history needs to occur from parties with keen insight into the tradition and culture of the Ottomans. Until that occurs, what is currently available is little more than the retelling of enemy campfire stories.
A couplet from Sultan Selim II’s poetry:
We are loving nightingales that have got wretched because of the longing of separation,
The gentle morning wind becomes fire if it blows through our rosary.
[1] The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success (Oxford Linguistics) – Geoffrey Lewis
[2] Turkish Cultural Foundation – turkishculture.org
[3] Amazon.com – Product Details, Citations
The curious reader perusing the last few articles regarding the Ottomans might easily take for granted the power of such positive statements by European travelers about the character of the Ottomans. The full force of these quotes are only truly brought into light when understanding the environment of sheer racism on the part of the general European establishment towards the Ottomans and their intense hatred for their political successes.
Works such as these are, unfortunately, also the ultimate source for much of the history available today within English regarding the Ottomans. Of course, these statements have been filtered in modern day history books, however the biased opinion on various events and inclination to a negative character remains.
Some of these comments echo what we hear from today’s neo-cons. Interestingly enough, the criticisms against the Ottomans are largely against their faith and their strong hold of it. Not only does this help eliminate the myth of irreligious leaders, these comments describe the foundation for the European movement away from the Ottomans and Islam by some Turkish parties influenced by the Western lifestyle. Eventually this party became known as the nationalist ‘Young Turks’ which led to the abolishment of the Caliphate.
A small collection of these comments from authoritative works and sources of ‘history’ are presented below.
As always I am interested in your thoughts and comments.
Such a religion, so inwrought in every political, social,
and moral relation of every Moslem believer, cannot
but have a powerful influence upon the character, and
capacity of a nation, composed of such believers, for
progress and advancement in civilization; and facts
justify the position of some of our ablest historians, that
any real civilization is impossible for the Turk, until he
abandons the Koran and the faith of Mahomet. Of
course, in’the light and knowledge which forces itself
upon nations surrounded by a higher civilization in this
nineteenth century, the continued existence of such a
nation is a struggle, which can have but one of two terminations ;
either it must abandon Islamism, or it must
go to the wall. Unhappily, while all that was vital in
the Mahometan faith has been gradually eaten out in
the larger cities, the empty shell remains, and is strong
enough to bring about their destruction as a nation. In
the country and the provinces, the old bigotry yet remains.
As long as the Turks entertained no doubt of the superiority
of their religion, they zealously practised its
tenets, and only revealed the natural deformities of a
system, which, while it enforces and exaggerates the
Value of certain specific social virtues, more than makes
up for it, by giving the reins to all the worst passions
inherent in human nature.
-The Conquest of Turkey, Or, The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire, 1877 …
By Linus Pierpont Brockett, Porter (1878)
“But your Turk is a Mahometan, it seems, and therefore an
ally not fit for a Christian !—I do not know, sir, but an alliance
with a Mahometan may be as good as a peace with an atheist; /
the sanction of its engagements may, perhaps, be as sacred, and
its stipulations as likely to be fulfilled. ”
-Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honourable George Canning
By John Styles (pg 99) Published 1829
“We have heard much of the
reforms introduced into Turkey during the last twenty or
thirty years, and the progress she is making in civilization,
or in approximating the civilization of the West, and we are
willing to admit that some progress has been made at Constantinople
in rejecting the least objectionable portions of
Mahometanism, and in adopting the vices and frivolity of
our Western civilization. But we see in this nothing to
encourage us. Western civilization is at bottom a Christian
civilization, and can be adopted in its essential and
living principles by no nation that rejects, or does not adopt,
the Christian religion. No nation can adhere to the Koran
and enter into the civilized order of Europe or America.
Even if a Mussulman people were to reject the Koran,
without accepting the Bible, it could not enter that order.
Jt could adopt only what is anomalous in it, accidental
to it, or exists along with it, in spite of it; for what constitutes
its life, its soul, its vigor, is Christianity, and not an
abstract or disembodied Christianity, but the Church.”
– Brownson’s Quarterly Review
By Orestes Augustus Brownson (Published 1860)
The man who has risen from a low estate to a great
one by vile means,’ the man who has bought his
place by bribes, the slave who has risen by craft
and cringing, the wretch who has risen by that viler
path which Christian tongues are forbidden to speak
of, but which is the Turk’s surest path to power,
in such men as these the lowest and basest form of
human nature is reached. And such men as these
rule at pleasure over South-eastern Europe. Barbarians
at heart, false, cruel, foul, as any of the old
Turks, but without any of the higher qualities of the
old Turks, these men have picked up just enough of
the outward show of civilization to deceive those who
do not look below the surface. They meet the
Ministers of civilized powers on equal terms; they
wear European clothes; they talk an European
tongue, and are spoken of as ” Excellency” and ”
Highness.” The wretched beings called Sultans are
thrust aside as may be thought good at the moment;
but the relations between the Sultan and his subjects,
the relations with which at the treaty of Paris the
Christian powers bound themselves not to interfere,
go on everywhere in full force. There is no barbarian
so dangerous as the barbarian who is cunning enough
to pass himself off for a civilized man. pg 202-203“The Ottoman Power in Europe: Its Nature, Its Power, Its Decline” : pub: 1877
the truth on 
m.a.kidwai,CME/IND.RLY.(retd.) on 